Rewards and Punishments in Digital Islamic Education: An Integrative Literature Review and the Rahmah Ethical Framework
Abstract
Abstrak
Penelitian ini mengkaji kondisi penghargaan mendukung atau justru melemahkan motivasi belajar, batas pendidikan dan etis punishment di lingkungan digital, serta prinsip yang dapat menuntun praktik pendidikan Islam. Tinjauan literatur integratif mensintesis 54 sumber substantif, terutama terbit Januari 2015–September 2026, dengan karya fondasional sebelum 2015 dipertahankan. Penelusuran dilakukan secara iteratif melalui Google Scholar, platform penerbit, dan repositori resmi WHO, UNESCO, serta regulasi Indonesia. Sumber dikelompokkan menurut jenis bukti dan dinilai secara peka-desain berdasarkan transparansi metode, relevansi langsung, kekuatan inferensi, otoritas dokumen, dan keterbatasannya. Sintesis tematik menunjukkan bahwa penghargaan paling konsisten mendukung pembelajaran ketika berfungsi sebagai umpan balik informatif, mengakui kemajuan yang bermakna, dan tidak menggantikan otonomi peserta didik, efek gamifikasi tetap heterogen menurut desain, konteks, dan durasi. Bukti paling kuat menolak hukuman fisik dan merendahkan, sedangkan bukti langsung mengenai sanksi digital masih lebih terbatas dan terutama memerlukan inferensi hati-hati dari kajian privasi, analitik pembelajaran, dan disiplin sekolah. Berdasarkan pemisahan antara temuan empiris dan penalaran normatif, penelitian ini mengusulkan RAHMAH sebagai kerangka keputusan etis yang saling berinteraksi: Respect dignity and privacy, Align with learning purposes, Human review of digital data, Meaningful proportionality, Autonomy-supportive feedback, dan Healing through restoration. RAHMAH merupakan kerangka konseptual berbasis bukti, bukan paket intervensi yang telah tervalidasi, kelayakan, penerimaan, implementasi, hasil, dan dampak tidak terduganya masih perlu diuji di berbagai lembaga pendidikan Islam.
Kata Kunci: Rewards and Punishments, Pendidikan Islam Digital, Motivasi Peserta Didik, Disiplin Etis, Kerangka Kerja RAHMAH
Abstract
This study examines the conditions under which rewards support or undermine learning motivation, the educational and ethical limits of punishment in digital environments, and principles that can guide Islamic educational practice. An integrative literature review synthesized 54 substantive sources published primarily from January 2015 to September 2026, while retaining pre-2015 foundational works when conceptually. Literature was identified iteratively through Google Scholar, publisher platforms, and official WHO, UNESCO, and Indonesian regulatory repositories. Sources were grouped by evidence type and appraised in a design-sensitive manner for methodological transparency, direct relevance, strength of inference, documentary authority, and limitations. The thematic synthesis indicates that rewards most consistently support learning when they function as informative feedback, recognize meaningful progress, and do not displace learner autonomy; gamification effects remain heterogeneous across design, context, and duration. The strongest evidence rejects physical and humiliating punishment, whereas direct evidence on digitally mediated sanctions is more limited and requires cautious inference from privacy, learning-analytics, and school-discipline scholarship. Separating empirical findings from normative reasoning, the study proposes RAHMAH as an interacting ethical decision framework: Respect dignity and privacy, Align with learning purposes, Human review of digital data, Meaningful proportionality, Autonomy-supportive feedback, and Healing through restoration. RAHMAH is an evidence-informed conceptual framework rather than a validated intervention package; its feasibility, acceptability, implementation, outcomes, and unintended effects require empirical evaluation across diverse Islamic educational settings.
Keywords: Rewards and Punishments, Digital Islamic Education, Learner Motivation, Ethical Discipline, RAHMAH Framework
References
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aguiar-Castillo, L., Hernández-López, L., Sáa-Pérez, P., & Pérez-Jiménez, R. (2021). Gamification as a motivation strategy for higher education students in tourism face-to-face learning. The International Journal of Management Education, 19(1), 100362. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijme.2020.100362
Al-Attas, S. M. N. (1980). The concept of education in Islam: A framework for an Islamic philosophy of education. In Kuala Lumpur: Muslim Youth Movement of Malaysia (ABIM.
Andrejevic, M., & Selwyn, N. (2020). Facial recognition technology in schools: Critical questions and concerns. Learning, Media and Technology, 45(2), 115–128. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2020.1686014
Assalihee, M., Boonsuk, Y., Bakoh, N., & Sano, A. (2024). Transforming Islamic education through lesson study: A classroom-based approach to professional development. Education Sciences, 14(9), 1029. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci 14091029
Bai, S., Hew, K. F., & Huang, B. (2020). Does gamification improve student learning outcome? Evidence from a meta-analysis and synthesis of qualitative data in educational contexts. Educational Research Review, 30, 100322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2020.100322
Bardach, L., & Murayama, K. (2025). The role of rewards in motivation—Beyond dichotomies. Learning and Instruction, 96, 102056. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.learninstruc.2024.102056
Deci, E. L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R. M. (1999). A meta-analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125(6), 627–668. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.125.6.627
Ferguson, R., Hoel, T., Scheffel, M., & Drachsler, H. (2016). Ethics and privacy in learning analytics. Journal of Learning Analytics, 3(1), 5–15. https://doi.org/10.18608/jla.2016.31.2
Gershoff, E. T. (2017). School corporal punishment in global perspective: Prevalence, outcomes, and efforts at intervention. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 22(sup1), 224–239. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2016.1271955
Gershoff, E. T., Goodman, G. S., Miller-Perrin, C. L., Holden, G. W., Jackson, Y., & Kazdin, A. E. (2018). The strength of the causal evidence against physical punishment of children and its implications for parents, psychologists, and policymakers. American Psychologist, 73(5), 626–638. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000327
Gershoff, E. T., & Grogan-Kaylor, A. (2016). Spanking and child outcomes: Old controversies and new meta-analyses. Journal of Family Psychology, 30(4), 453–469. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000191
Gouseti, A., James, F., Fallin, L., & Burden, K. (2025). The ethics of using AI in K–12 education: A systematic literature review. Technology, Pedagogy and Education, 34(2), 161–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/1475939X.2024.2428601
Halstead, J. M. (2004). An Islamic concept of education. Comparative Education, 40(4), 517–529. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305006042000284510
Heekes, S.-L., Kruger, C. B., Lester, S. N., & Ward, C. L. (2022). A systematic review of corporal punishment in schools: Global prevalence and correlates. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 23(1), 52–72. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838020925787
Heilmann, A., Mehay, A., Watt, R. G., Kelly, Y., Durrant, J. E., Turnhout, J., & Gershoff, E. T. (2021). Physical punishment and child outcomes: A narrative review of prospective studies. The Lancet, 398(10297), 355–364. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S0140-6736(21)00582-1
Howard, J. L., Bureau, J., Guay, F., Chong, J. X. Y., & Ryan, R. M. (2021). Student motivation and associated outcomes: A meta-analysis from self-determination theory. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 16(6), 1300–1323. https://doi.org/ 10.1177/1745691620966789
Ifenthaler, D., & Schumacher, C. (2016). Student perceptions of privacy principles for learning analytics. Educational Technology Research and Development, 64(5), 923–938. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-016-9477-y
Jusubaidi, J., Lindgren, T., Mujahidin, A., & Rofiq, A. C. (2024). A model of transformative religious education: Teaching and learning Islam in Pondok Modern Darussalam Gontor, Indonesia. Millah: Journal of Religious Studies, 23(1), 171–212. https://doi.org/10.20885/millah.vol23.iss1.art6
Kementrian Pendidikan. (2026). Peraturan Menteri Pendidikan Dasar dan Menengah Republik Indonesia Nomor 6 Tahun 2026 tentang Budaya Sekolah Aman dan Nyaman. In Berita Negara Republik Indonesia Tahun 2026 Nomor 11. https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Details/345185/permendikdasmen-no-6-tahun-2026
Kim, J., & Castelli, D. M. (2021). Effects of gamification on behavioral change in education: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(7), 3550. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18073550
Kimmons, R. (2021). Safeguarding student privacy in an age of analytics. Educational Technology Research and Development, 69(1), 343–345. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s11423-021-09950-1
Koivisto, J., & Hamari, J. (2019). The rise of motivational information systems: A review of gamification research. International Journal of Information Management, 45, 191–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2018.10.013
Korpershoek, H., Harms, T., Boer, H., Kuijk, M., & Doolaard, S. (2016). A meta-analysis of the effects of classroom management strategies and classroom management programs on students’ academic, behavioral, emotional, and motivational outcomes. Review of Educational Research, 86(3), 643–680. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315626799
Krath, J., Schürmann, L., & Korflesch, H. F. O. (2021). Revealing the theoretical basis of gamification: A systematic review and analysis of theory in research on gamification, serious games and game-based learning. Computers in Human Behavior, 125, 106963. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106963
Li, M., Ma, S., & Shi, Y. (2023). Examining the effectiveness of gamification as a tool promoting teaching and learning in educational settings: A meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1253549. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1253549
Lodi, E., Perrella, L., Lepri, G. L., Scarpa, M. L., & Patrizi, P. (2022). Use of restorative justice and restorative practices at school: A systematic literature review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(1), 96. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19010096
Manzano-León, A., Camacho-Lazarraga, P., Guerrero, M. A., Guerrero-Puerta, L., Aguilar-Parra, J. M., Trigueros, R., & Alias, A. (2021). Between level up and game over: A systematic literature review of gamification in education. Sustainability, 13(4), 2247. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13042247
Mekler, E. D., Brühlmann, F., Tuch, A. N., & Opwis, K. (2017). Towards understanding the effects of individual gamification elements on intrinsic motivation and performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 71, 525–534. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.08.048
Memon, N. A. (2011). What Islamic school teachers want: Towards developing an Islamic teacher education programme. British Journal of Religious Education, 33(3), 285–298. https://doi.org/10.1080/01416200.2011.595912
Memon, N. A., Alhashmi, M., & Abdalla, M. (2024). Laying foundations for Islamic teacher education. Education Sciences, 14(10), 1046. https://doi.org/10.3390/ educsci14101046
Memon, N. A., Alhashmi, M., Abdalla, M., & Chown, D. (2024). Fostering faithful praxis: Tracing educators’ affective, cognitive, and conative engagement in Islamic teacher education. Education Sciences, 14(10), 1110. https://doi.org/10.3390/ educsci14101110
Morris, L. S., Grehl, M. M., Rutter, S. B., Mehta, M., & Westwater, M. L. (2022). On what motivates us: A detailed review of intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation. Psychological Medicine, 52(10), 1801–1816. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291 722001611
Organization, W. H. (2025). Corporal punishment of children: The public health impact. World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/B09424
Papakostas, C. (2025). Artificial intelligence in religious education: Ethical, pedagogical, and theological perspectives. Religions, 16(5), 563. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050563
Ratinho, E., & Martins, C. (2023). The role of gamified learning strategies in students’ motivation in high school and higher education: A systematic review. Heliyon, 9(8), 19033. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19033
Reeve, J., & Cheon, S. H. (2021). Autonomy-supportive teaching: Its malleability, benefits, and potential to improve educational practice. Educational Psychologist, 56(1), 54–77. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2020.1862657
Regan, P. M., & Jesse, J. (2019). Ethical challenges of edtech, big data and personalized learning: Twenty-first century student sorting and tracking. Ethics and Information Technology, 21, 167–179. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10676-018-9492-2
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2020). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation from a self-determination theory perspective: Definitions, theory, practices, and future directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61, 101860. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101860
Sailer, M., Hense, J. U., Mayr, S. K., & Mandl, H. (2017). How gamification motivates: An experimental study of the effects of specific game design elements on psychological need satisfaction. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 371–380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.12.033
Samimi, C., Han, T. M., Navvab, A., Sedivy, J. A., & Anyon, Y. (2023). Restorative practices and exclusionary school discipline: An integrative review. Contemporary Justice Review, 26(1), 28–47. https://doi.org/10.1080/10282580.2023.2204884
Sholehuddin, L. B., & Abdul, A. M. (2024). Implementation of Islamic education values in building students’ religious character through an affective approach based on the Qur’an. Jurnal Pendidikan Agama Islam, 21(1), 217–233. https://doi.org/10.14421/jpai.v21i1.7260
Snyder, H. (2019). Literature review as a research methodology: An overview and guidelines. Journal of Business Research, 104, 333–339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2019.07.039
Syafri, U. A., & Budin, B. H. (2025). Teachers, parents, and the digital challenge: Understanding Islamic character formation in Singapore’s madrasa education. Nazhruna: Jurnal Pendidikan Islam, 8(3), 627–642. https://doi.org/10.31538/nzh. v8i3.239
Toda, A. M., Klock, A. C. T., Oliveira, W., Palomino, P. T., Rodrigues, L., Shi, L., Bittencourt, I., Gasparini, I., Isotani, S., & Cristea, A. I. (2019). Analysing gamification elements in educational environments using an existing gamification taxonomy. Smart Learning Environments, 6, 16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-019-0106-1
UNESCO. (2023). Global education monitoring report 2023: Technology in education—A tool on whose terms? UNESCO.
Urhahne, D., & Wijnia, L. (2023). Theories of motivation in education: An integrative framework. Educational Psychology Review, 35(2), 45. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10648-023-09767-9
Vu, T., Magis-Weinberg, L., Jansen, B. R. J., Atteveldt, N., Janssen, T. W. P., Lee, N. C., Maas, H. L. J., Raijmakers, M. E. J., Sachisthal, M. S. M., & Meeter, M. (2022). Motivation-achievement cycles in learning: A literature review and research agenda. Educational Psychology Review, 34(1), 39–71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-021-09616-7
Whittemore, R., & Knafl, K. (2005). The integrative review: Updated methodology. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 52(5), 546–553. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2005.03621.x
Zainuddin, Z., Chu, S. K. W., Shujahat, M., & Perera, C. J. (2020). The impact of gamification on learning and instruction: A systematic review of empirical evidence. Educational Research Review, 30, 100326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev. 2020.100326
Zeng, J., Parks, S., & Shang, J. (2024). Exploring the impact of gamification on students’ academic performance, motivation and cognitive engagement: A meta-analysis. British Journal of Educational Technology, 55(6), 2594–2613. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13471
Zhan, Z., He, W., Yi, X., & Ma, S. (2022). The effectiveness of gamification in programming education: Evidence from a meta-analysis. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 3, 100096. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2022.100096
Zhang, Q., Yu, L., & Yu, Z. (2022). A meta-analysis on investigating and comparing the effects on learning achievement and motivation for gamification and game-based learning. Education Research International. https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/1519880
